THE WORLD OF DIAMONDS

Diamond is carbon in its most concentrated form. Except for trace impurities like boron and nitrogen, diamond is composed solely of carbon, the chemical element that is fundamental to all life. But diamond is distinctly different from its close cousins the common mineral graphite and lonsdaleite, both of which are also composed of carbon. Why is diamond the hardest surface known while graphite is exceedingly soft? Why is diamond transparent while graphite is opaque and metallic black? What is it that makes diamond so unique?
The key to these questions lie in diamond's particular arrangement of carbon atoms or its crystal structure--the feature that defines any mineral's fundamental properties. A crystal is a solid body formed from the bonding of atomic elements or compounds in a repeating arrangement. Often, crystals possess smooth external faces. Due to their symmetrical and finite nature, the building blocks of crystals are limited to relatively small numbers of atoms, and their chemical composition.
This exhibition appeared at the Museum November 1, 1997 – August 30, 1998.It will be on display at the Midland Center for the Arts July 12 – November 3, 2002 -DIAMOND.
The mere mention of the word fills the mind with a multitude of concepts and images. Diamond is a mineral, a natural crystalline substance, the transparent form of pure carbon. Diamond is something superb, the peerless "king of gems" that glitters, dazzles, and symbolizes purity and strength. Diamond is for engagement and the 75th wedding anniversary, for a commitment to never-ending love. Diamond is indomitable, the hardest surface known. Diamond is exotic, formed in Earth's interior and shot to the surface by extraordinary volcanoes. A diamond is likely the oldest thing you will ever own, probably 3 billion years in age, fully two thirds the age of the Earth. Diamond is a strategic and high-tech supermaterial for our technological society. Diamond is a shape. This exhibition presents the fascinating story of the nature of diamonds. compositions to simple numerical combinations of elements.
Most diamonds consist of primeval carbon from Earth's mantle, but those from eclogites probably contain carbon recycled from the ocean crust by plate tectonics -- the carbon of microorganisms. How do we know? Carbon atoms occur in three different masses, or isotopes. Unlike high-temperature processes in deep Earth, low- temperature, biological processes, such as photosynthesis, are sensitive to the differences in mass, and actively sort different carbon isotopes. Thus, the ratios of carbon isotopes in organic materials -- plants, animals, and shells -- vary, and also differ from those in the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere and the oceans. Geochemists "read" the carbon isotopes in samples to interpret nature's record.
Virtually all carbon atoms, the ones in a diamond or a tree or you, came from the stars. Particularly at Earth's surface the proportions of 12C and 13C (the carbon isotopes of mass 12 and 13) get redistributed. Expressed as simple numbers in 13C notation -- in which larger numbers mean more 13C -- organic carbon has large negative values, average Earth has a mildly negative value, and the carbon in shells is near zero.
The narrow range of 13C values for harzburgitic diamonds in the histogram on the top resembles the range of average Earth, indicating that the mantle is the likely carbon source. The large range for eclogites suggests mixing of organic carbon (the strongly negative numbers), mantle carbon (mildly negative numbers), and shell-like carbon (values near zero). These data support recycling of once-living carbon from Earth's surface deep into the mantle to form diamond. When ocean floor slides into the mantle, the basaltic rock becomes eclogite, and organic carbon in sediments may become diamond.
Today diamonds are mined in about 25 countries, on every continent but Europe and Antarctica. However, only a few diamond deposits were known until the 20th century, when scientific understanding and technology extended diamond exploration and mining around the globe. For 1,000 years, starting in roughly the 4th century BCE, India was the only source of diamonds. In 1725, important sources were discovered in Brazil, and in the 1870s major finds in South Africa marked a dramatic increase in the diamond supply. Additional major producers now include several African countries, Siberian Russia, and Australia.
It is a modern misconception that the world's diamonds come primarily from South Africa: diamonds are a world-wide resource. The common characteristic of primary diamond deposits is the ancient terrain that hosts the kimberlite and lamproite pipes that bring diamonds to Earth's surface.

The map above shows both the major deposits and the ancient bedrock, both the 2,500-million-year-old archons and less productive 1,600 to 2,500-million-year-old protons, that contain the diamond pipes. The diamonds in secondary deposits have been moved by erosion away from the pipes. The monumental increase in diamond production in the 20th century is shown on this graph. India's maximum production, perhaps 50,000 to 100,000 carats annually in the 16th century, is very small by modern standards. Brazil and Venezuela are barely discernible compared to South African production following discoveries in 1867. For the most part, except for major wars and economic recessions, diamond production has been steadily increasing since then, with non-African sources growing in relative proportion. Major production is now dominated by Australia, Botswana, Russia, and Congo Republic (Zaire), but South Africa is still a major producer, in both volume and value.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Balfour, Ian (1992). Famous Diamonds, 2nd ed. N.A.G., Colchester, U.K.
Becker, Vivienne (1987). Antique and Twentieth Century Jewellery, 2nd ed. NAG Press, Colchester, U.K.
Blakey, G. G. (1977). The Diamond. Paddington Press, London.
Bruton, Eric (1978). Diamonds, 2nd ed. Chilton Book Co., Radnor, PA.
Bury, S. (1978). Rings. Victoria & Albert Museum, London.
Cassedanne, J. P. (1989). "Diamonds in Brazil". Mineralogical Record, 20: 325-36. Chadour, B. (1994). Rings. Mainey, Leeds, UK.
Collins, A.T. (1982). "Colour centres in diamond". Journal of Gemmology, 18:37-75.
Collins, Wilkie (1967). The Moonstone. Pan Books, London (and other editions).
Cotter, J. F. (1990). "Immortal Diamond": An image in Hopkins. Thought 65:564.
Dalton, O. M. (1912). Catalogue of the Finger Rings in the British Museum. British Museum, London.
Davies, G. (1984). Diamond. Adam Hilger Ltd., Bristol.
Davies, G. (1994). Properties and Growth of Diamond. INSPEC, Institute for Electrical Engineers, London.
Dawson, J. B. (1980). Kimberlites and Their Xenoliths. Springer-Verlag, New York.
De Berquen, R. (1661/1669). Les Merveilles des Indes orientales et occidentales, ou nouveau traite des pierres precieuses et perles, avec augmentation. Paris.
Dickinson, Joan Younger (1965). The Book of Diamonds. Avenel Books, New York.
Evans, Joan (1922). Magical Jewels of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Clarendon Press, Oxford (Dover Publications, New York, 1977).
Evans, Joan (1931). English Posies and Posy Rings. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford.
Evans, Joan (1953). A History of Jewellery 1100-1870. London (Boston Book and Art, Boston, 1970).
Epstein, E. J. (1982) "Have you ever tried to sell a diamond?". The Atlantic Monthly, 249:23-34.
Field, J. E. (1992). The Properties of Natural and Synthetic Diamond. Academic Press, London.
Finot, L. (1896). Les Lapidaires Indiens. Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes, Paris.
Gill, S., and Sutherland, J. (eds.) (1969). The Eustace Diamonds. Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, U.K.
Gorelick, L., and Gwinnett, A. J. (1988). "Diamonds from India to Rome and Beyond". American Journal of Archaeology 92: 547-52.
Gurney, J. J., Levinson, A. A., and Smith, H. S. (1991). "Marine mining of diamonds off the west coast of southern Africa". Gems & Gemology, 27: 206-19.
Hazen, Robert M. (1993). The New Alchemists. Times Books, Random House, New York. Hennelly, M. M., Jr. (1984). "Detecting Collins' Diamond: From Serpentstone to Moonstone". Nineteenth-Century Fiction 39:27.
Hobbes, J. (1991). "A simple approach to detecting diamond simulants". Gems & Gemology 17:20-33.
Janse, A. J. A. (1995). "A history of diamond sources in Africa: Part I". Gems & Gemology, 31: 228-55.
Janse, A. J. A. (1996). "A history of diamond sources in Africa: Part II". Gems & Gemology, 32: 2-30.
Kammerling, R. C., McClure, S. F., Johnson, M. L., Koivula, J. I., Moses, T. M., Fritsch, E., and Shigley, J. E. (1994). "An update on filled diamonds: Identification and durability". Gems & Gemology 30:142-77.
Kangle, R. P. (1972). The Kautiliya Arthasastra, 2nd ed. Bombay University (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1992).
King, C. W. (1865). The Natural History, Ancient and Modern, of Precious Stones and Gems. Bell & Daldy, London.
King, J. M., Moses, T. M., Shigley, J. E., and Liu, Y. (1994). "Color grading of colored diamonds in the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory". Gems & Gemology 30:220-42.
Kirkley, M. B., Gurney, J. J., and Levinson, A. A. (1991a). "Age, origin, and emplacement of diamonds: Scientific advances in the last decade". Gems & Gemology, 27:2-25.
Koivula, J. I., Kammerling, R. C., Fritsch, E., Fryer, C. W., Hargett, D., and Kane, R. E. (1989). "The characteristics and identification of filled diamonds". Gems & Gemology 25:68-83.
Krashes, Laurence S. (1993). Harry Winston: The Ultimate Jeweler. 4th ed., Harry Winston Inc., New York and the Gemological Institute of America, Santa Monica, CA.
Kunz, George F. (1916). Shakespeare and Precious Stones. Lippincott, Philadelphia.
Kunz, George F. (1917). Rings. J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia.
Kunz, George F. (1938). The Curious Lore of Precious Stones. Halcyon House, New York.
Laufer, B. (1915). The Diamond: A study in Chinese and Hellenistic Folk-lore. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, publication 184, Anthropological series vol. 15.
Legrand ,J. (1980). Diamonds. Myth, Magic and Reality. Crown Publishers, New York.
Lenzen, G. (1970). The History of Diamond Production and the Diamond Trade. Barrie & Jenkins, London. (English translation from the German, first published by Duncker & Humbolt, Berlin, 1966.)
Levinson, A. A., Gurney, J. J., and Kirkley, M. B. (1992). "Diamond sources and production: past, present, and future". Gems & Gemology, 28: 234-54.
Liddicoat, R.T. Jr. (1955). "Diamond selling practices". Gems & Gemology 8:165-71.
Lonoff, S. (1982). Wilkie Collins and His Victorian Readers: A Study in the Rhetoric of Authorship. AMS Press, New York.
Loring, John (1987). Tiffany's 150 Years. Doubleday, New York.
Mascetti, Daniela, and Triossi, Amanda (1996). Bulgari. Leonard Arte, Milan.
Mawe, John (1823). Treatise on Diamonds and Precious Stones, London.
Meen, V. B., and Tushingham, A. D. (1968). Crown Jewels of Iran. University of Toronto Press.
Misiorowski, E. B., and Hays, N. K. (1993). "Jewels of the Edwardians". Gems & Gemology 29:152-71.
Mitchell, R. H. (1995). Kimberlites, Orangeites, and Related Rocks. Plenum Press, New York, 410p.
Morel, Bernard (1988). The French Crown Jewels. Fonds Mercator, Antwerp.
Nadelhoffer, Hans (1984). Cartier: Jewelers Extraordinairy. Abrams, New York.
Nassau, Kurt (1980). Gems Made by Man. Chilton Book Co., Radnor, PA.
Nassau, Kurt (1994). Gemstone Enhancement. 2nd Ed., Butterworths, London.
Newman, H. (1981) An Illustrated Dictionary of Jewelry. Thames and Hudson, New York,
Nixon, P. H. (1987). Mantle Xenoliths. Wiley, New York.
Ohly, Friedrich (1976). Diamant und Bocksblut. Erich Schmidt, Berlin.
Pliny the Elder (1962). Historia naturalis [Natural History], with an English Translation in Ten Volumes, vol. 10, books 36-7, translated by D. E. Eicholz, T. E. Page et al. (eds.). William Heinemann, London.
Proddow, Penny, and Fasel, Marion (1996). Diamonds: A Century of Spectacular Jewels. Abrams, New York.
Proddow, Penny, and Healy, Debra (1987). American Jewelry: Glamour and Tradition. Rizzoli, New York.
Proddow, Penny, Healy, Debra and Fasel, Marion (1992). Hollywood Jewels: Movies, Jewelry, Stars. Abrams, New York.
Raulet, Sylvie (1987). Van Cleef & Arpels. Rizzoli, New York.
Robbins, Manuel (1994). Fluorescence: Gems and Minerals under Ultraviolet Light. Geoscience Press, Phoenix, AZ, USA. [Chapter 15 provides a detailed review of colored-diamond luminescence.]
Scarisbrick, Diana (1988). The Power of Love. Diamond Information Centre, London.
Scarisbrick, Diana (1993). Rings. Abrams, New York.
Scarisbrick, Diana (1994). Jewellery in Britain 1066-1837. Michael Russell, Norwich, UK.
Scarisbrick, Diana (1995). Chaumet: Master Jewellers Since 1780. Alain de Gourcuff Editeur, Paris.
Sevdermish, M., and Mashiah, A. (1996). The Dealer's Book of Gems and Diamonds, (2 vols.). Kal Printing House, Israel.
Shigley, J. E., Fritsch, E., Reinitz, I., and Moses, T. M. (1995). "A chart for the separation of natural and synthetic diamonds". Gems & Gemology 31:256-64.
Snowman, A. Kenneth (1990). The Master Jewelers. Abrams, New York.
Spencer, L. K., Dikinis, S. D., Keller, P. C., and Kane, R. E. (1988). "The diamond deposits of Kalimantan, Borneo". Gems & Gemology 24: 67-80.
Tillander, Herbert (1995). Diamond Cuts in Historic Jewellery 1381-1910. Arts Books International, London.
Trollope, A. The Eustace Diamonds.
Walgrave, Jan (ed.) (1993). A Sparkling Age. Antwerp Regional Diamond Museum, Antwerp.
Webster, R. (1994). Gems: Their Sources, Descriptions and Identification, 5th ed., revised by P. G. Read. Butterworth-Heinemann, London.
Wilks, J. W., and Wilks, E. (1995). The Properties and Applications of Diamond. Butterworth-Heinemann, Stoneham, MA.
Williams, Gardner Fred (1906). Diamond Mines of South Africa. B. F. Buck & Co., New York.
Zapata, Janet (1991). "The Rediscovery of Paulding Farnham, Tiffany's Designer Extraordinaire Part I: The Jewelry". Antiques, 139:556-67.

USP- IAG - SISMICIDADE NA COSTA DO BRASIL

USP descarta tsunami, mas não novo tremor
O sismólogo Afonso Vasconcelos, da Universidade de São Paulo (USP), afirmou hoje que não está descartada a possibilidade de ocorrerem novos tremores de terra como o que foi registrado na noite de hoje em São Paulo. Ainda de acordo com o sismólogo, não há chances de ocorrer um tsunami. O epicentro do sismo ocorreu no mar, a cerca de 270 km a sudeste da cidade de São Paulo, por volta das 21h. O abalo foi sentido em todo o Estado e também no Rio, Minas Gerais, Santa Catarina e no Paraná. As informações são da Globonews.
EFEITOS DA ÁGUA NO MEIO AMBIENTE
OS TSUNAMIS ; Devemos nos preocupar com estes fenômenos no Brasil?
Os tsunamis são ondas oceânicas que invadem o litoral, provocando destruição pelo tamanho das ondas e, principalmente, pelo grande volume de água que carregam, podendo invadir por quilômetros o litoral. Este se propaga para o litoral formando as ondas na arrebentação ao atingir a porção continental. As ondas aumentam de tamanho, devido à diminuição da velocidade de propagação provocada pela menor profundidade do assoalho oceânico.
Os tsunamis mais violentos são os provocados por terremotos que ocorrem nas zonas de subducção.
Mapa de sismicidade do Brasil de sismos ocorridos entre 1768 e 2002, mostrando o epicentro do sismo de magnitude mb 5,3 ocorrido em 1990, em frente ao litoral de Rio Grande do Sul que pode ter sido provocado por um deslizamento de sedimentos.
Um exemplo deste fenômeno é o ocorrido em Sumatra, em 26 de dezembro de
2004, quando morreram mais de 300.000 pessoas, entre Sumatra, nas ilhas e praias mais próximas do Oceano Índico. Uma zona de subducção é uma área de convergência de placas tectônicas, onde uma das placas desliza debaixo da outra. As zonas de subducção são potenciais focos sísmicos. Os terremotos de conseqüências mais devastadoras estão normalmente associados a este enquadramento geológico. A fricção das duas placas pode provocar a libertação repentina de enormes quantidades de energia, que resulta no terremoto. (fonte: http://pt.wikipedia.org/) Outro tsunami famoso, de interesse para os paises que rodeiam o Oceano Atlântico, é o que destruiu Lisboa em 1755, matando mais de 90.000 pessoas, um terço de sua população nessa época. O terremoto que provocou esse tsunami, com magnitude Mw 8,0, teve seu epicentro a
200 km a SW (sudoeste) de Lisboa. Depois do terremoto, houve um terrível incêndio que, após 40 minutos, foi seguido por um tsunami, que se repetiu mais três vezes. O terremoto de Lisboa ocorreu na Dorsal Azores-Gibraltar, onde se encontram as placas tectônicas da África e a Euro-asiática, provocando um processo de subducção motivo pelo
qual os terremotos nessa dorsal provocam deslocamentos verticais do assoalho oceânico, que originam os tsunamis.
A sismicidade existente no Oceano Atlântico, principalmente nas dorsais meso-oceânicas, é composta por sismos associados a falhas transcorrentes ou transformantes, que provoca deslocamentos horizontais do assoalho oceânico, com exceção da Dorsal Azores-Gibraltar e as zonas de subducção das micro-placas do Caribe que provocam pequenos tsunamis de
efeitos locais, e do Arco de Scotia, que não provocou até agora tsunamis conhecidos. De acordo com os mapas acima e aos tsunamis associados com os terremotos que ocorrem no Oceano Atlântico, a única fonte sísmica que poderia provocar tsunamis que possam afetar o Brasil, seriam os que ocorrem na Dorsal Açores-Gibraltar, como o de 1755 que afetou Lisboa
e cujas ondas chegaram ao litoral NE da América do Sul, com ondas de menos de 1 metro de altura. Outras fontes que provocam tsunamis são as erupçõesvulcânicas. A erupção vulcânica mais famosa, seguida por um tsunami, ocorreu no vulcão Kracatoa em 27 de agosto de 1883, localizado no estreito de Sunda que fica entre Sumatra e Java, na Indonésia, uns mil
quilômetros ao sul onde ocorreu o terremoto e tsunami de Sumatra de Dezembro de 2004. Nessa erupção dois terços da Ilha de Kracatoa foram submersos o que provocou o tsunami. Os efeitos do tsunami foram devastadores, ondas de até 37 m de altura destruíram em uma hora 295 cidades e povoados do Estreito de Sunda, matando mais de 37.000 pessoas A Ilha de Kracatoa, depois Emvermelho as partes do litoral do da erupção do vulcão. Estreito de Sunda afetadas pelo tsunami Na região das Antilhas, no Caribe, também existem alguns casos de tsunamis gerados por erupções vulcânicas, entretanto esses tsunamis provocam efeitos muito localizados e são mais
propensos de atingir a borda sul e sudeste da América do Norte. Esses tsunamis não atingiram o litoral do Brasil. Por outro lado existe a previsão da ocorrência de um provável tsunami que seria provocado
pela queda de um bloco de meio milhão de toneladas de uma das paredes do vulcão “Cumbre Vieja”, que está localizado na Ilha “La Palma” que faz parte do arquipélago Ilhas Canárias na borda NW da África
Segundo a previsão apresentada por Ward & Day (2001), a queda violenta desse imenso bloco no Oceano Atlântico que ocorreria, provavelmente, durante a próxima erupção desse
vulcão, provocaria uma onda gigantesca de 650 m de altura que chegaria em Europa e África
com 100 m de altura e na região leste de Estados Unidos e NE da América do Sul com ondas de 50 m de altura, viajando com velocidade de 700 km/h. Esse tsunami poderia atingir o
litoral da região NE, SE e Sul do Brasil com ondas de até 20 m de altura. Esta previsão não considerou o efeito de atenuação rápida no caso do tsunami provocado pela erupção do vulcão Krakatoa, conforme foi apresentado antes.
A Ilha “La Palma” com o vulcão “Cumbre Vieja” na porção sul dessa ilha. O bloco que desabaria e que provocaria o tsunami, está localizado no flanco SW desse vulcão. A modelagem efetuada por Mader (2001) de esse fenômeno, considera que o bloco SW do “CumbreVieja”, não cairia de forma violenta e sim por partes ou deslizaria, o que provocaria uma onda de no máximo 350 m de altura. Além disso, considerou a variação mais real da profundidade do fundo marinho assim como o fato de este tipo de tsunamis apresentar ondas
de alta freqüência, que se atenuam mais rapidamente, e concluiu que o tsunami atingiria Europa e África com ondas de 10 m (e não de 100 m, como na previsão anterior), chegaria na porção leste dos Estados Unidos, nas Antilhas e na região NE da América do Sul, com ondas de 3 m (e não 50 m, como na previsão anterior). No resto do litoral do Brasil, as ondas desse tsunami não passariam de mais de 2 m de altura As duas regiões com maior ocorrência de tsunamis são a Dorsal Açores – Gibraltar e as
Antilhas, inclusive nesta região tem ocorrido tsunamis provocados por terremotos e por erupções vulcânicas. Fora esses tsunamis, outras fontes importantes são os deslizamentos, provocados pela queda de grandes blocos de gelo, principalmente em Groenlândia e na
Noruega. Os casos de tsunamis associados a terremotos, com a ocorrência simultânea de deslizamentos de grandes quantidades de sedimentos,Nestes casos, se pensa que o terremoto provocou o deslizamento de sedimentos e que este, por sua vez, teria provocado o tsunami correspondente. Esses terremotos são de magnitude M 7,2
no caso dos sismos da região NE do Canadá e no caso do sismo de Uruguai, a magnitude calculada foi de M 7,0. Ambas regiões não apresentam altos índices de atividade sísmica, conseqüentemente, não tem como explicar a ocorrência desses sismos de magnitude elevada. Por outro lado em ambas regiões existe uma plataforma continental bastante extensa (O Grand Bank, no Canadá e a Baia do Rio da Plata, no Uruguai) maior que 200 km, o que permite o
acúmulo de grandes quantidades de sedimentos, que de tempo em tempo deslizam para a região abissal provocando terremotos de grande magnitude e tsunamis, com ondas de até 15 m, porém de pequeno comprimento de onda, motivo pelo qual essas ondas são atenuadas rapidamente e os efeitos do tsunami são percebidos com maior tamanho em regiões relativamente limitadas, como é o caso do tsunami ocorrido no Grand Bank , Canadá, em novembro 18, de 1929.
Os epicentros dos sismos ocorridos junto com os tsunamis do Grand Bank, em 1774, e do Uruguai, em 1884, aparecem nos locais em que os tsunamis foram mais destrutivos, e não nos locais onde ocorreram os deslizamentos, como é o caso do epicentro do sismo de novembro 1929 ocorrido no Grand Bank, que foi localizado com dados de estações sismográficas no local onde ocorreu o deslizamento de sedimentos, na borda da plataforma continental. A quantidade de material deslizado no tsunami do Grand Bank de 1929, foi estimada em
quase um trilhão de toneladas de sedimentos, que provocou o sismo de magnitude M 7,2 e
que causou a morte de 28 pessoas. O tsunami de 1884, na mesma região provocou a morte de
300 pessoas, o que nos leva a pensar que teria sido maior que o ocorrido em 1929, 150 anos
antes, para poder justificar esse número maior de mortes. Ou seja a quantidade de material
deslizado em 1774 pode ter sido superior a um trilhão de toneladas. Essas informações sobre os tsunamis provocados por grandes deslizamentos, nos indicam que
o provável tsunami que pode ser originado durante a próxima erupção do vulcão “Cumbre
Vieja”, nas Ilhas Canárias, deverá ter características semelhantes aos deslizamentos do Grand
Bank de 1929 ou de 1774, que deslocaram uma quantidade de massa muito maior, que provocaram terremotos com magnitude M 7,2, mas que o tsunami resultante desses deslizamentos tiveram um efeito localizado, sem atingir distâncias transoceânicas com ondas
de altura considerável, a não ser pequenas oscilações registradas por mareógrafos no outro extremo do Oceano Atlântico.
Como conclusão podemos inferir que o tsunami que poderia atingir com severidade o litoral do Brasil, não será originado na dorsal Açores Gibraltar, nem nas zonas de subdução das Antilhas ou do Arco de Scotia, nem na erupção do vulcão “Cumbre Vieja”. Seria um tsunami, como o ocorrido no Uruguai em 1884, que poderá ser provocado por um gigantesco deslizamento de grande quantidade de sedimentos depositados na plataforma continental do Brasil. Mapa de sismicidade do Brasil de sismos ocorridos entre 1768 e 2002, mostrando o epicentro do sismo de magnitude mb 5,3 ocorrido em 1990, em frente ao litoral de Rio Grande do Sul (assinalado com uma seta branca), que pode ter sido provocado por um deslizamento de sedimentos. Na Fig.se mostra o mapa de sismicidade do Brasil onde se assinala um sismo de
magnitude mb 5,3ocorrido em 1990 em frente ao litoral do Estado de Rio Grande do Sul, que provavelmente teria sido provocado por um deslizamento de sedimentos depositados na plataforma continental, como que ocorreu em 1884 na Baia do “Rio de La Plata” no Uruguai, porém de menores dimensões que não chegaram a provocar um tsunami, tendo em vista que o sismo do Uruguai teve magnitude M 7,0 e que o tsunami originado por esse deslizamento chegou a matar algumas pessoas. Podemos observar no mapa da Fig. 13 que existem outros sismos de menor magnitude localizados na borda da plataforma continental, principalmente em frente à região Sudeste do Brasil, que podem corresponder a sismos provocados por deslizamentos de menor tamanho que o que teria provocado o sismo de 1990 em frente ao litoral de Rio Grande do Sul. A plataforma continental do Brasil, com exceção da existente no Cone Amazônico, não é tão extensa como a do Grand Bank no Canadá, ou a da Baia do “Rio de La Plata” no Uruguai, por esse motivo provavelmente não será possível que sejam acumuladas quantidades gigantescas de sedimentos que possam deslizar e provocar terremotos de magnitude M 7,0 ou maior e tsunamis que afetem o nosso litoral.
São Paulo, outubro de 2005

GUIA DO MINERADOR - ÍNDICE GERAL - COMISSÃO DE ÉTICA

Comissão de Ética - Sobre a Comissão
MINISTÉRIO DE MINAS E ENERGIADEPARTAMENTO NACIONAL DE PRODUÇÃO MINERAL
Portaria nº 072, de 30 de Março de 2006
O DIRETOR DO DEPARTAMENTO NACIONAL DE PRODUÇÃO MINERAL – DNPM, no uso da competência que lhe confere o Decreto nº 4.640, de 21 de março de 2003 e a Portaria nº 385, de 13 de agosto de 2003, publicada no DOU de 14 seguinte, resolve:
I - Designar os servidores LIANE MARIA PEREIRA DA COSTA INKOTTE, PAULO JAIME SOUZA ALHEIROS E JOSÉ ANTONIO ALVES DOS SANTOS, pelo prazo de 24 meses, para sob a presidência da primeira, constituírem a Comissão de Ética Pública, com o objetivo de atuar como entre a Instituição e a Comissão de Ética Pública, supervisionar a observância do código de ética profissional do servidor público e promover a adoção das normas de conduta ética específica, no âmbito deste Departamento.
II - Esta Portaria entra em vigor na data de sua publicação.
MIGUEL ANTONIO CEDRAZ NERY

GUIA DO MINERADOR
Informações Básicas
Propriedade dos Recursos Minerais
Direito de Prioridade
Departamento Nacional de Produção Mineral
Regimes de Aproveitamento
Regimes de Autorização e de Concessão
Objetivo
Campo de Aplicação
Áreas Máximas
Requerimento de Pesquisa
Autorização de Pesquisa
Relatório dos Trabalhos de Pesquisa
Guia de Utilização
Requerimento de Lavra
Portaria de Lavra
Regime de Licenciamento
Objetivo
Campo de Aplicação
Áreas Máximas
Requerimento de Registro de Licença
Registro de Licença
Regime de Extração
Objetivo
Campo de Aplicação
Áreas Máximas
Requerimento de Registro de Extração
Declaração de Registro
Regime de Permissão de Lavra Garimpeira
Objetivo
Campo de Aplicação
Áreas Máximas
Requerimento de Permissão de Lavra Garimpeira
Condições de Outorga
Licenciamento Ambiental
Licenciamento Ambiental nos Regimes de Autorizações e Concessões
Licenciamento Ambiental no Regime de Licenciamento
DNPM - 4° Distrito - Pernambuco
Compilado por: Adhelbar Queiroz Filho Editado por: Clóvis Ático Lima Filho

Legislação MineralÍndice Remissivo

Água Mineral
Autorização de Pesquisa
CFEM
Concessão de Lavra
D.N.P.M.
Direitos Minerários - Cessão
Direitos Minerários - Transferência
Disponibilidade
Guia de Utilização
Licenciamento
Meio-Ambiente
Permissão de Lavra
RAL - Relatório Anual de Lavra
Regime de Extração
Regimes de Aproveitamento
Sanções e Nulidades
TAH - Taxa Anual por Hectare

THE TYPES OF DIAMOND DEPOSITS / ALLUVIAL

Angola is the third largest producer of diamonds in Africa and has only explored 40% of the diamond-rich territory within the country, but has had difficulty in attracting foreign investment because of corruption, human rights violations, and diamond smuggling.Production rose by 30% in 2006 and Endiama, the national diamond company of Angola, expects production to increase by 8% in 2007 to 10 million carats annually. The government is trying to attract foreign companies to the provinces of Bié, Malanje and Uíge. Angola has also historically been a major producer of iron ore.
1 Diamonds
2 Iron ore
3 Other minerals
4 References

Diamond mining began in 1912, when the first gems were discovered in a stream in the Lunda region in the northeast. In 1917 Diamang was granted the concession for diamond mining and prospecting, which it held until independence. Control over the company was obtained by the government in 1977. In April 1979, a general law on mining activities (Law 5/79) was enacted and gave the state the exclusive right to prospect for and exploit minerals. Accordingly, a state diamond-mining enterprise, the National Diamond Company (Emprêsa Nacional de Diamantes--Endiama), was founded in 1981 and acquired the government's 77 percent share in Diamang. UNITA, which selected the diamond mining industry as a principal target, soon crippled mining efforts, and by the beginning of 1986 the two foreign companies involved in servicing and operating the industry pulled out of Angola. By mid-1986 Diamang was formally dissolved, leaving large outstanding debts.

Attacks by UNITA on mining centers, disruption of transport routes, and widespread theft and smuggling caused diamond sales to fall to US$33 million by 1985 and to an estimated US$15 million in 1986. In late 1986, Roan Selection Trust (RST) International, a subsidiary of the Luxembourg-registered holding company ITM International, began mining in the Cafunfo area, along the Cuango River, the site of Angola's most valuable alluvial diamond deposits (see fig. 9). Mining had been halted there for more than two years after UNITA attacked the mining camp in February 1984, kidnapping seventy-seven expatriate workers and severely damaging the mining equipment. After the subsequent kidnapping of a British expatriate in November 1986, defense forces in the area were strengthened, allowing the resumption of mining operations. In 1987 production there averaged 60,000 carats, and about 120,000 carats were produced in the other two mining areas, Andrada and Lucapa. By 1987 diamond production had risen to 750,000 carats, compared with less than 400,000 carats produced in 1986. The 1987 figure, however, was still not much more than 1985 production and only a little over half of 1980 output (see table 9, Appendix A).[3]
This increase in production has benefited from the rise in the price per carat received for Angolan diamonds. The resumption of mining in the area along the Cuango River and a decline in theft of stones of higher value in the Andrada and Lucapa areas have increased the value of output. Furthermore, Endiama, which was responsible for overseeing the industry and for holding monthly sales, has benefited from a general improvement in the world diamond market as well as dealers' willingness to pay higher prices in the hope of securing favored treatment in the future. As a result, average carat value established by the monthly sales in 1987 exceeded US$110, more than twice as much as in 1985 (US$45) and at its highest level since 1981 (US$119).

In 1987 Endiama signed a two-year mining contract with the Portuguese Enterprises Corporation (Sociedade Portuguêsa de Empreendimentos--SPE), a Portuguese company that has retained a large number of Portuguese technicians previously employed by Diamang. Former Diamang shareholders founded SPE in 1979 after Diamang was nationalized. The precise terms of the contract were not made public, but it was thought that the company would undertake new prospecting, which had been at a virtual standstill since independence. Through a subsidiary, the SPE also was to help Endiama with diamond valuation, which a British company had been carrying out. In December 1987, Angola also signed an agreement with the Soviet Union to cooperate in mining diamonds and quartz. Under the terms of the agreement, the Soviet Union was to participate in mining enterprises and was to draw up a detailed geological map of Angola. In 1987 the government also began to revise the 1979 mining law to encourage new companies to invest in the diamond-mining industry, in particular to resume prospecting. Among the companies believed to be considering investing in 1988 was Britain's Lonrho conglomerate, which had taken an increasingly active interest in Angola in the late 1980s. The South African diamond-mining giant DeBeers was also interested after it lost its exclusive marketing rights for Angolan diamonds at the end of 1985 because of government suspicions that DeBeers had devalued Angolan diamonds. DeBeers has expressed interest in studying the kimberlite pipes (deep, subsurface deposits), which, because of the depletion of the alluvial deposits, were thought to represent the future of the Angolan diamond industry.

Angola is the third largest producer of diamonds in Africa and has only explored 40% of the diamond-rich territory within the country, but has had difficulty in attracting foreign investment because of corruption, human rights violations, and diamond smuggling. Production rose by 30% in 2006 and Endiama, the national diamond company of Angola, expects production to increase by 8% in 2007 to 10 million carats annually. The government is trying to attract foreign companies to the provinces of Bié, Malanje and Uíge

The Angolan government loses $375 million annually from diamond smuggling. In 2003 the government began Operation Brilliant, an anti-smuggling investigation that arrested and deported 250,000 smugglers between 2003 and 2006. Rafael Marques, a journalist and human rights activist, described the diamond industry in his 2006 Angola's Deadly Diamonds report as plagued by "murders, beatings, arbitrary detentions and other human rights violations." Marques called on foreign countries to boycott Angola's "conflict diamonds."

Iron ore
Once one of the country's major exports, iron ore was no longer mined in the late 1980s because of security and transportation problems. From the mid-1950s until 1975, iron ore was mined in Malanje, Bié, Huambo, and Huíla provinces, and production reached an average of 5.7 million tons per year between 1970 and 1974. Most of the iron ore was shipped to Japan, West Germany, and Britain and earned almost US$50 million a year in export revenue. After independence, the government established a state company, the National Iron Ore Company of Angola (Emprêsa Nacional de Ferro de Angola--Ferrangol), for the exploration, mining, processing, and marketing of iron ore. Ferrangol contracted with Austromineral, an Austrian company, to repair facilities and organize production in Cassinga. Production began to slow in 1974 as a result of technical problems at the Cassinga mine in Huíla Province and stopped completely in August 1975. The area fell under foreign control after South African forces invaded in 1975. Although South Africa withdrew its troops in early 1976, as of 1988 mining had not resumed in the area.

By 1988 the Cassinga mines had a production capacity of approximately 1.1 million tons per year. However, the railroad to the port of Namibe (formerly Moçâmedes) needed extensive repair, and since it was located only 310 kilometers north of the Namibian border, security against South African attacks could not be ensured. Furthermore, UNITA was active in the area and posed a threat to the rail line if it were repaired. Even if these problems could be resolved, production of iron ore at Cassinga would be costly in view of the depressed state of the world steel market in the late 1980s

Other minerals
In addition to diamonds and iron ore, Angola is also rich in several other mineral resources that had not been fully exploited by the late 1980s. These include manganese, copper, gold, phosphates, granite, marble, uranium, quartz, lead, zinc, wolfram, tin, fluorite, sulfur, feldspar, kaolin, mica, asphalt, gypsum, and talc. The government hoped to resume mining in the southwest for crystalline quartz and ornamental marble. It has been estimated that 5,000 cubic meters of marble could be extracted annually over a period of twenty years. A state-owned company mined granite and marble in Huíla and Namibe provinces and in 1983 produced 4,450 cubic meters of granite and 500 cubic meters of marble. Since then, the company has ceased production to re-equip with modern machinery. Quartz production, however, was suspended indefinitely because of the military situation in the areas close to the extraction sites in Cuanza Sul Province. The government established a company in 1980 to exploit phosphate deposits located in the northwest. There were 50 million tons of deposits in Zaire Province and about 100 million tons in Cabinda. Although studies of the deposits in both locations have been made by Bulgarian and Yugoslav companies, as of 1988 production had not started at either site
References
Angola: U.S. Must Strengthen Ties to Protect Strategic Energy and Security Interests
Council on Foreign Relations via AllAfrica
Angola wants foreign investors for diamond sector
July 26, 2007. Reuters Clark, Nancy. "Diamonds". Angola country study
Library of Congress Federal Research Division (February 1989). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
Angola to double diamond production in 2006
Afrol News , Clark, Nancy. "Iron Ore". Angola country study
Library of Congress Federal Research Division (February 1989). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
Clark, Nancy. "Other Minerals". Angola country study
Library of Congress Federal Research Division (February 1989). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.

Geologic Processes

Geologic processes create two basic types of diamond deposits, referred to as primary and secondary sources. Primary sources are the kimberlite and lamproite pipes that raise diamonds from Earth's mantle, where they originate. Secondary sources, created by erosion, include such deposits as surface scatterings around a pipe, concentrations in river channels, and fluxes from rivers moved by wave action along ocean coasts, past and present. Mining of these deposits depends upon sufficient concentration and quality of diamonds.

The primary deposits, or diamond pipes, are the vertical portion. The flared top of the pipes can yield substantial quantities of diamonds, but following the narrowing pipe downward eventually becomes unprofitable. Note how erosion of the landscape moves surface minerals -- including the diamonds -- from the pipes down hills, streams, and rivers to their ultimate destination, the ocean. Because diamonds are dense they concentrate at the bottom of active zones of moving sand and gravel. These secondary deposits are eluvial &#eth; above a pipe, colluvial -- adjacent to a pipe, alluvial &#eth; stream and river transported, and marine -- along beaches that can wind up onshore or offshore with changing sea level. Secondary deposits may be found far from active means of transport, in the fossilized channels of now-vanished rivers or under fossil beaches.

Most of the diamond deposits first discovered were alluvial concentrations in streambed or riverbed sand and gravel. They are still actively exploited in many ways, from the most primitive to the highly sophisticated. The goal is relatively simple: to find a location where moving water has deposited diamonds in the bottom of a channel, possibly in a pocket or cleft. Because rivers meander and drainage can change, fossilizing a once active river, the search for alluvial diamonds requires some geological knowledge and a lot of luck. The process involves removing the overlying barren ground, digging up the bearing ground, extracting the diamonds, and, nowadays, restoring the landscape when finished.

An "independent" operation using the simplest technology: shovel, pan, water, and muscles. In the most basic, individual operations, such as in Sierra Leone or Angola, the technology involves shovel and pan, with some hand sloshing to gravitate diamond to the bottom of the pan; the eye is the ultimate sorting device. Mom-and-pop operations in South Africa involve a small claim and utilize limited technology -- shovels, buckets, jury-rigged cranes powered by small vehicles, and the like -- to load a small washing pan. The concentrate is then sieved into several size ranges, and each fraction is dumped onto a picking table, where someone checks by eye for diamonds. In the bigger operations, as shown in the model, large earth-moving equipment transports the alluvium, and the processing approaches that of the primary mines -- coarse sieving, then rotary sieving in a trommel, before loading into a large washing pan. Final processing includes concentrate sieving, a picking table, and usually a grease table. Of course, no crushing is required, as nature has already released the diamonds from the pipe rock.

There are two aspects of moving diamonds from mine to dealer. The first is the fairly straightforward but important task of separating diamonds into gem-quality, near gem-quality, and industrial-grade diamonds. The second is the more intriguing aspect: the primary diamond marketing, which has been and still is largely controlled by De Beers Consolidated Mines, Ltd. through its majority control of the Central Selling Organization (CSO). The CSO sells a large percentage of mine production to diamond dealers; independent mines sell by closed bids and through private transactions.Sorting small diamonds in a Botswanan operation. click to zoom inSorting occurs at every level of the market, from the mine to the jeweler. At the mine, the sorting depends on the sophistication of the operation and the size of production, but it is always based on grouping stones of like type. Diamonds are grouped into "sizes" -- more than one carat; "smalls" -- between 1 carat and 1/10th carat; and "sand," -- less than 1/10th carat, with some leeway for market pressures. Diamonds larger than about 15 carats are handled individually. Shape groups comprise "stones," "shapes," "cleavages," "macles," and "flats," describing characteristics familiar to the market. The ultimate purpose of sorting is to estimate an asking price for the rough diamonds. Harry Oppenheimer House is a diamond-sorting facility in Kimberley, South Africa. As in an artist's atelier, color is best judged by skylight without direct sunlight, so the windows of this building face south. Remember, South Africa is in the southern hemisphere.After great swings in diamond prices, the Diamond Trading Corporation (DTC) was set up by De Beers in 1934 to handle the actual sales of diamonds. The DTC and the Diamond Producers' Association (the mine operators) form the nucleus of the Central Selling Organization. The CSO stabilizes prices in hard times and raises them in accord with inflation and demand during good times. It needs considerable wealth and stockpiles of diamonds to maintain this position, but this "single channel marketing" system has been an effective cartel. In the United States cartels are illegal, so De Beers cannot operate here. However, the company's interests are represented by a public relations office, the Diamond Information Center, and indirectly by the diamond dealers and jewelers who sell the gems.

Alluvial Mining
Today, diamonds are mined in about 25 countries, on every continent but Europe and Antarctica (AMNH, 2006). Although most diamond mining is accomplished by large companies, in many developing countries, diamonds and other minerals are extracted by small- scale miners working in the informal sector. These small-scale miners often use simple artisanal mining techniques in alluvial deposits. The process of alluvial diamond mining involves digging and sifting through mud, sand and gravel using shovels, sieves, or even bare hands. Typically, diamonds come from geologic rock formations called Kimberlites. Kimberlite rock formations that contain diamonds are eroded over time by rivers and streams and can deposit diamonds in the sediments carried by those streams farther downstream from the original source rocks. These deposits are called alluvial diamond deposits. The locations of these alluvial diamond deposits are controlled by the surrounding topography, drainage patterns, and the location of the Kimberlites themselves. Alluvial deposits are often mined and exploited by small-scale miners using artisanal mining techniques.

Artisanal mining techniques result in working with simple tools and equipment, usually in the informal sector, and outside the legal and regulatory framework. Artisanal operations are characterized by low productivity, lack of safety measures and high environmental impact. As a result, the majority of the artisanal miners are very poor, exploit marginal deposits with minimal returns, and are exposed to harsh and often dangerous conditions (IIED, 2006).
Artisanal and small-scale mining occurs primarily in rural areas where it represents the most promising, if not the only, income opportunity available. However, the mining activities are often viewed negatively by governments, large companies, and environmentalists. The use of child labor, the potential for environmental degradation, the high incidence of prostitution in mining camps, and the associated spread of HIV/AIDS where migrant workers are involved are major concerns in the artisanal mining sector. Further, the potential use of ASM revenue to finance conflicts and insurgencies in host countires or even regional scale conflicts is a major international concern. The use of diamond mining revenue to finance conflicts has been termed “conflict diamonds” or “blood diamonds”.

References
American Museum of Natural History. 2006. The Nature of Diamonds:

Alluvial Mining

http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/diamonds/alluvial.html

International Institute of Environment and Development. 2006. Artisanal and Small Scale

http://www.iied.org/mmsd/mmsd_pdfs/finalreport_13.pdf

MULHERES QUE MERECEM O NOSSO RESPEITO E INCENTIVO MOTIVACIONAL

MULHERES QUE MERECEM O NOSSO RESPEITO E INCENTIVO MOTIVACIONAL
Video Miss Landmine Angola 2008
http://br.youtube.com/watch?v=jDVWJAiCD_4

video de Miss Landmine Angola 2008 - video no link no fim deste texto.

http://www.miss-landmine.org/misslandmine_project.html
Miss Landmine Angola 2008 pageant in close collaboration with the Angolan government (CNIDAH) and supported by the European Union is under way: The crowning of the world's first Miss Landmine in front of a live audience and a special jury in CineTropico in Luanda, Angola on April 2nd, 2008. The winner will receive a custom-made prothesis from Norway's leading manufacturer.

Miss minas terrestres em AngolaJovens cujo corpo foi amputado lutam contra a discriminação .O Hotel Trópico, em Luanda, foi o local escolhido para o certame "Miss Sobrevivente de Minas", com 18 representantes de cada uma das províncias angolanas.
Uma iniciativa para lutar contra a discriminação das vítimas das minas, num dos países com maior quantidade destas armas.
Apesar de todos os esforços do programa de desminagem, as Nações Unidas alertam para a existência de dezenas de milhares de minas que permanecem espalhadas pelo território de Angola, considerado o país com mais campos minados de todo o continente africano. Segundo dados do último relatório sobre as minas em Angola, da Electronic Mine Information Network (uma rede de informação sobre minas), mais de dois milhões de pessoas foram afectadas por explosões de engenhos explosivos no país.

Por ano, entre 300 e 400 pessoas morrem ou perdem membros do corpo em Angola. Elsa Cristina Neto, da sub-comissão de Apoio à Reinserção Social da Comissão Nacional Intersectorial de Desminagem e Assistência Humanitária em Angola, sabe que não se podem apagar do mapa todos os engenhos enterrados por todo o país há mais de 40 anos. Mas sabe que se pode combater o estigma social a que as amputações sujeitaram estas mulheres. E lembra que esta iniciativa tem esse objectivo.

O projecto Miss Sobrevivente de Minas 2008 foi idealizado pelo artista norueguês Morten Traavik, seguindo a tradição de concursos de beleza em Angola. O concurso de beleza, Miss Sobrevivente de Minas 2008, conta com a colaboração do governo angolano, através da comissão nacional intersectorial de desminagem e assistência humanitária (CNIDAH). Financiado pela União Europeia.
"Temos que dar uma atenção especial às mulheres vítimas de minas porque a sua condição de género já é por si um problema e são elas as principais vítimas deste problema", frisou.

Este link do video Miss Landmine Angola 2008, pode e deve ser reenviado, para todos os seus amigos, pois só tem efeitos desejáveis. Pode ajudar o MUNDO,
a ganhar consciencia deste drama, que é uma tragédia. Faça isso por AMOR.
Clique no link abaixo para visionar o video Miss Landmine Angola 2008

http://br.youtube.com/watch?v=jDVWJAiCD_4

Angola tem um concurso de miss só para vítimas das minas terrestres 'plantadas' durante a guerra civil que assolou o país. O Miss Mina Terrestre quer mostrar, segundo os organizadores, que ainda há esperança para quem perdeu a perna. De acordo com a ONU, 23 mil angolanos ficaram mutilados por conta das minas. Estima-se que ainda há milhões de minas 'enterradas' em locais desconhecidos no país. A imagem acima é de quarta-feira (2), durante a competição na capital, Luanda. (Foto: AFP)

General Conversion Factors - THE NORTHERN MINNER

General Conversion Factors

===========================
1 acre (ac) = 0.4047 hectares

---------------------------------------------------------------------
1 hectare (ha) = 2.471 acres = 10000 square metres = 0.00386 square miles

---------------------------------------------------------------------
1 square mile = 640 acres = 258.99 hectares = 2.59 square kilometres

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 square kilometre = 0.3861 square miles = 247.1 acres = 100 hectares

----------------------------------------------------------------
1 township = 36 square miles

----------------------------------------------------------------
1 cubic foot (cu ft) = 0.028 cubic metres

-------------------------------------------------------------------

1 centare (ca) = 1550.003 square inches = 1 square metre = 1.196 square yards
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

1 millimetre = 0.039 inches

--------------------------------------
1 centimetre = 0.394 inches

-----------------------------------------
1 metre = 39.370 inches = 1.094 yards
------------------------------------------------

1 kilometre = 0.621 miles = 3280 feet = 1000 metres
--------------------------------------------------

1 inch = 2.54 centimetres
---------------------------------------------------

1 foot = 0.305 metres
-------------------------------------------------

1 yard = 91.44 centimetres = 0.9144 metres
---------------------------------------------------

1 mile = 1609.3 metres = 1.6093 kilometres
----------------------------------------------------

1 litre = 0.220 gallons = 0.880 quarts = 1000 cubic centimetres = 61.025 cubic inches
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1 ounce (troy) = 31.103 grams
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

1 ounce (avdp) = 28.3495 grams
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

1 kilogram (kg) = 32.151 ounces (troy) = 35.274 ounces (avdp) = 2.205 pounds
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

1 metric tonne = 0.984 tons (long) = 1.102 tons (short) = 2204.622 pounds = 1000 kilograms
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1 long ton (l t) = 1.016 tonnes = 2240 pounds
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

1 short ton (s t) = 0.9071 tonnes = 2000 pounds
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

Ore Grade Conversion

-----------------------------------------------------

1 troy oz./short ton = 34.2857 grams/tonne

--------------------------------------------------

1 gram/tonne 0.0292 oz./ton

==================================

Density Conversions;

Specific Gravity x 1 = g/Lg/L x 8.345404 = lb/gal
lb/gal x 0.119826 = g/mL

Temperature:

°F = (1.8 x °C) + 32
°C = (°F - 32) x 0.555
°Kelvin = °C + 273.

Qualidade da Legislação Ambiental Brasileira: uma Discussão a partir de sua Efetividade.

Cesár, estou te enviando, em anexo, as informações formatadas.
Obrigada.
Priscila

Seminário de Meio Ambiente
Qualidade da Legislação Ambiental Brasileira: uma Discussão a partir de sua Efetividade.
Data: 17 de Abril de 2008
Horário: 8h00 às 12h30
Local: Rua da Paisagem,220 Vila da Serra – Nova Lima/MG
As leis Ambientais Brasileiras, avançadas e bem elaboradas, no que diz respeito ao objeto proposto, apresentam muitos questionamentos acerca de sua aplicação na prática, que por fatores dos mais diversos, dificultam a sua execução. Para discutir sobre a qualidade da legislação ambiental brasileira nas diferentes esferas de mercado, o Comitê de Meio Ambiente convida você a participar do Seminário de Meio Ambiente da Amcham Belo Horizonte.
Palestrantes:
Eduardo Martins – Diretor de Monitoramento e Fiscalização Ambiental do IEF
Wagner Soares Costa – Gerente de Meio Ambiente da FIMG
Alison José Coutinho – Superintendente do Ibama em Belo Horizonte
Carlos Fernandes – Presidente Nacional da Essencis

Moderador:
Joaquim Martins – Chefe do Departamento Jurídico da FEAM
Presidente:
William freire – Presidente do Comitê de Meio Ambiente da Amcham BH.
Investimento:
Sócio:R$ 30,00
Não Sócio: R$ 60,00
Informações e inscrições:
mhtml:%7B523CC2C1-A2F6-4B4A-ABF9-9FC638EBA9E8%7Dmid://00000685/!x-usc:mailto:Rafael.moretzsohn@amchambrasil.com.br
(31)2126-9750
Realização:
Câmara Americana do Comércio
American Chamber of Commerce
Patrocínio:
Hospital dos Olhos
Alcicla
Essencis MG
CBMM
Arcelor Mittal

GOLD UNITS from E-GOLDPROSPECTING WEBSITE

Gold UNITS !!!

Parts Per Million (PPM): A unit of concentration often used when measuring levels of pollutants in air, water, body fluids, etc. One ppm is 1 part in 1,000,000. The common unit mg/liter is equal to ppm. Four drops of ink in a 55-gallon barrel of water would produce an "ink concentration" of 1 ppm.
Parts Per Billion (PPB): One part per billion is 1 part in 1,000,000,000. One drop of ink in one of the largest tanker trucks used to haul gasoline would represent 1 ppb.
The difference between 1 ppm and 1 ppb is important. A prestigious scientific journal recently reported the concentration of a substance as 0.5-1.5 ppm. The real value was 0.5-1.5 ppb. The difference between $1 and $1000!
UNITS
PPM = mg/L, mg/Kg, ug/mL, uL/LPPB = ug/L, ug/Kg1 ppb = 0.001 ppm1 ppm = 1000 ppb20000 ug/L = 20 mg/L0.002 mg/Kg = 2 ug/Kg
PPM = Parts Per Million PPB = Parts Per BillionMilligrams per Liter = mg/LMilligrams per Killogram = mg/KgMicrograms per Liter = ug/LMicrograms per Killigram = ug/KgMicrograms per Milliliter = ug/uLMicroliters per Liter = uL/LParts Per Trillion (PPT):

A unit of concentration used to measure vanishingly small levels of pollutants or contaminants in, for example, body fluids. One ppt is 1 part in 1,000,000,000,000. One drop of ink distributed through the water contained in a total of 4 of the 3-million-gallon reservoirs pictured would result in a final concentration of 1 ppt.

The remarkable advances in the sensitivity of modern analytical techniques make it possible to detect some substances at the ppt level whose presence would not have been detected using earlier assay methods.

Parts Per Quadrillion (PPQ): One ppq is 1 part in 1,000,000,000,000,000 or 1 in 1015. Even the most modern analytical techniques cannot measure a pollutant such as dioxin in this range. However, mathematical models based on the tiny amounts of dioxin still produced during the manufacture of paper suggest that dioxin is being released in the ppq range by paper mills in the state of Maine (U.S.)

Using another mathematical model, the concept of collective dose, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that these undetectable levels of dioxin in river water downstream of one mill will kill, or prevent from hatching, as many as six baby bald eagles over the next five years.

Epithermal Gold Deposits

Gold deposition of epithermal Au. Mineralizing fluids ascend from hot igneous intrusion, then mix and interact with meteoric water. Epithermal gold is deposited in the boiling zone (potential bonanza deposit). Alteration of country rocks by invading hot fluids (advanced argillic alteration). Gold can also be deposited in a hot spring environment (mineralizing fluids reach the surface and cool, depositing ore) and in a placer environment (erosion of an ore body, heavy metals redeposited in sedimentary environment).

An epithermal gold deposit is one in which the gold mineralization occurs within 1 to 2 km of surface and is deposited from hot fluids. The fluids are estimated to range in temperature from less than 100C to about 300C and, during the formation of a deposit, can appear at the surface as hot springs, similar to those found in Yellowstone National Park (in northwestern Wyoming, southern Montana and eastern Idaho). The deposits are most often formed in areas of active volcanism around the margins of continents.

Epithermal gold mineralization can be formed from two types of chemically distinct fluids -- "low sulphidation" (LS) fluids, which are reduced and have a near-neutral pH (the measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions) and "high sulphidation" (HS) fluids, which are more oxidized and acidic. LS fluids are a mixture of rainwater that has percolated into the subsurface and magmatic water (derived from a molten rock source deeper in the earth) that has risen toward the surface.

Gold is carried in solution and, for LS waters, is deposited when the water approaches the surface and boils. HS fluids are mainly derived from a magmatic source and deposit gold near the surface when the solution cools or is diluted by mixing with rainwater. The gold in solution may come either directly from the magma source or it may be leached out of the host volcanic rocks as the fluids travel through them. In both LS and HS models, fluids travel toward the surface via fractures in the rock, and mineralization often occurs within these conduits. LS fluids usually form large cavity-filling veins, or a series of finer veins, called stockworks, that host the gold. The hotter, more acidic HS fluids penetrate farther into the host rock, creating mineralization that may include veins but which is mostly scattered throughout the rock. LS deposits can also contain economic quantities of silver, and minor amounts of lead, zinc and copper, whereas HS systems often produce economic quantities of copper and some silver. Other minerals associated with LS systems are quartz (including chalcedony), carbonate, pyrite, sphalerite and galena, whereas an HS system contains quartz, alunite, pyrite and copper sulphides such as enargite.

Geochemical exploration for these deposits can result in different chemical anomalies, depending on the type of mineralization involved. LS systems tend to be higher in zinc and lead, and lower in copper, with a high silver-to-gold ratio. HS systems can be higher in arsenic and copper with a lower silver-to-gold ratio.

Many countries have epithermal gold deposits, including Japan, Indonesia, Chile and the western U.S., each of which occupies a portion of the "Rim of Fire," the area of volcanism that rings the Pacific Ocean from Southeast Asia to western South America.

Epithermal gold is also found in BM any of the world's most famous gold deposits are related to subaerial volcanic activity, these are known as epithermal gold deposits. They commonly occur in island arcs and continental arcs associated with subduction. Epithermal deposits are classified as products of hydrothermal fluids which have a specific depth range. The deposits are found near the surface and mineralization occurs at a maximum depth of 1 km but it rarely exceeds a depth of 600 m. It is also considered temperatures to range from 50-300oC under conditions of moderate pressure.

Most of the ore is found in veins. They tend to be irregular branching fissures, vesicle fillings, stockworks, breccia pipes and disseminations. The most common form of emplacement is open space fillings; these include cockscomb textures, crustifications, drusy cavities and symmetrical banding. Colloform textures are also found, these are typical of a shallow volcanic environment which indicate low temperatures and the free circulation of hydrothermal fluids. Evidence for repeated mineralization is evident; this includes re-brecciation and multistage banding.

Ore minerals are usually fine grained but have coarse grained well crystallized overgrowths of gangue minerals. The ore assemblages include sulfantimonides, gold and silver tellurides, stibnite, cinnabar, native mercury, electrum, native gold, native silver, selenides and to a lesser extent galena, sphalerite and chalcopyrite. Typical gangue minerals found are quartz, calcite, fluorite, barite and pyrite. Dolomite, hematite, chlorite, rhodonite are sometimes foundritish Columbia at the Baker mine, in the Toodoggone district, and near the Taseko River.

Many of the world's most famous gold deposits are related to subaerial volcanic activity, these are known as epithermal gold deposits. They commonly occur in island arcs and continental arcs associated with subduction. Epithermal deposits are classified as products of hydrothermal fluids which have a specific depth range.

The deposits are found near the surface and mineralization occurs at a maximum depth of 1 km but it rarely exceeds a depth of 600 m. It is also considered temperatures to range from 50-300oC under conditions of moderate pressure.

Most of the ore is found in veins. They tend to be irregular branching fissures, vesicle fillings, stockworks, breccia pipes and disseminations. The most common form of emplacement is open space fillings; these include cockscomb textures, crustifications, drusy cavities and symmetrical banding. Colloform textures are also found, these are typical of a shallow volcanic environment which indicate low temperatures and the free circulation of hydrothermal fluids. Evidence for repeated mineralization is evident; this includes re-brecciation and multistage banding.

Ore minerals are usually fine grained but have coarse grained well crystallized overgrowths of gangue minerals. The ore assemblages include sulfantimonides, gold and silver tellurides, stibnite, cinnabar, native mercury, electrum, native gold, native silver, selenides and to a lesser extent galena, sphalerite and chalcopyrite. Typical gangue minerals found are quartz, calcite, fluorite, barite and pyrite. Dolomite, hematite, chlorite, rhodonite are sometimes found.

Deposit Models - Mesothermal Gold Veins MINERAL DEPOSIT PROFILES

Deposit Models - Mesothermal Gold Veins
MINERAL DEPOSIT PROFILES

MESOTHERMAL GOLD-QUARTZ VEIN DEPOSITSIN BRITISH COLUMBIA OCEANIC TERRANES

THE SNIP AND JOHNNY MOUNTAIN GOLD MINES: EARLY JURASSIC INTRUSIVE-RELATED VEIN DEPOSITS, ISKUT RIVER AREA, NORTHWESTERN BRITISH COLUMBIA

INTRUSION-RELATED AU-(AG-CU) PYRRHOTITE VEINS

O- MESOTHERMAL GOLD-QUARTZ VEIN DEPOSITSIN BRITISH COLUMBIA OCEANIC TERRANES

C. H. Ash, Geological Survey, B.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources; P.H. Reynolds, Department of Geological Sciences Dalhousie University and R.W.J. Macdonald, Mineral Deposit Research Unit, Department of Geological Sciences, The University of British Columbia
Mesothermal gold quartz vein deposits in British Columbia (eg. Bralorne-Pioneer and Cassiar) and gold placer deposits derived from such veins (eg. Atlin, Cariboo, Dease Lake and Manson Creek) are, or were hosted within or marginal to collisional suture zones where large volumes of CO2-rich fluids have been channeled. These zones represent major crustal breaks between diverse assemblages of island arcs, subduction complexes and continental margin clastic wedges. They are delineated by the presence of obducted remnants of ancient oceanic lithosphere, i.e. dismembered ophiolitic rocks.
Deposits are intimately associated with carbonate altered ultramafic rocks "listwanite" derived from oceanic lower crustal plutonic or upper mantle metamorphic protoliths. The presence of such ultramafic rocks at surface, in essence characterize the trans-crustal nature of these major fault zones. Listwanite is therefore significant in that it delineates such suture zones and, more importantly marks areas where the sutures have channeled potential mineralizing fluids.
Gold mineralization is characterized by silicification, pyritization and potassic metasomatism localized along fracture zones within broader carbonate alteration halos. Economic concentrations, due to the likelihood of vein continuity and definable reserves are most likely hosted by the more competent lithologies of the obducted oceanic lithosphere, which form relatively large tectonic blocks. The differentiated mafic plutonic oceanic crustal segment of the East Lisa Complex ("Bralorne Intrusion" or "Bralorne Diorite") hosting the Bralorne gold veins and the upper crustal volcanic rocks of the Sylvester allochthon hosting the Erickson gold veins are British Columbia examples. The Grass Valley district in the Motherlode Belt was the richest and most famous gold mining district in California, with practically all the gold recovered from lodes. As at Bralorne, the veins are hosted in a mafic plutonic-volcanic section of obducted crust, the Smartville Complex.
These veins appear to form during periods of metamorphism and partial melting due to tectonic crustal thickening in response to arc-continent collision. They are typically associated with late syn-collisional intermediate to felsic magmatism. Mineralizing hydrothermal fluids are interpreted to be derived, at least in part, from tectonically thickened, hydrated oceanic lithosphere that undergoes metamorphic dehydration and partial melting during and after faulting.
Ar39/Ar40 ages of hydrothermal vein mica from the Cache Creek and Bridge River Terrane define temporally restricted mineralizing events which closely follow a collisional episode. In contrast, published K/Ar data for deposits associated with the Slide Mountain Terrane suggest that mineralization was temporally much less restrictive and formed during a period of uplift and extension in Early Cretaceous.
The available age data suggest that either:
* There are two distinct tectonic regimes of mesothermal gold-quartz vein formation in the Cordillera, one involving a collisional event and the other produced during extension and uplift, or that
* All these vein deposits are late-syncollisional and the K-Ar systematics of mesothermal vein deposits occurring in association with oceanic lithosphere above the American continental margin have been reset by later thermal events.
Mesothermal gold quartz vein deposits are found along suture zones where affected by intense and pervasive carbonate alteration that is closely associated with late syn-collisional, structurally controlled intermediate to felsic magmatism They are potentially economic where hosted by relatively large, competent tectonic blocks of obducted oceanic crust.
P - THE SNIP AND JOHNNY MOUNTAIN GOLD MINES: EARLY JURASSIC INTRUSIVE-RELATED VEIN DEPOSITS, ISKUT RIVER AREA, NORTHWESTERN BRITISH COLUMBIA David A. Rhys, Consulting Geologist
The Snip and Johnny Mountain gold mines occur five kilometres apart on Johnny Mountain in northwestern British Columbia. The area is underlain by in a folded sequence of Upper Triassic turbiditic and volcaniclastic rocks, which host the Snip mine. The Triassic rocks are unconformably overlain by flat lying Early Jurassic volcanic rocks at the Johnny Mountain mine.
Ore at the Snip mine occurs in two southwest-dipping shear veins, the Twin zone and its splay, the 150 vein, which together contain >30 tonnes Au. The deposit comprises interlayered (i) laminated calcite and chlorite-biotite-pyrite replacement shear veins and (ii) dilatant quartz and pyrite-pyrrhotite veins. Veins were emplaced progressively during normally-directed simple shear that accompanied a period of semi-brittle deformation.
The Johnny Mountain mine (Stonehouse deposit, 3 tonnes Au production) located south of Snip, consists of a set of steep north-dipping dilatant quartz-pyrite veins with K-feldspar alteration envelopes. The veins are superimposed on flat lying Early Jurassic volcaniclastic rocks that are intruded by a series of Early Jurassic feldspar porphyry dykes. Structural relations suggest that the Stonehouse veins represent a higher level, more brittle response to the same deformational event that formed the stratigraphically deeper Snip orebodies.
The Early Jurassic Red Bluff K-feldspar megacrystic quartz diorite stock intrudes Triassic rocks 300-800 metres northeast of the Twin zone. The intrusion is affected by (i) early intense quartz-magnetite-sericite-K-feldspar-biotite (potassic) alteration associated with abundant quartz-magnetite-hematite veins and Au-Cu-Mo mineralization, overprinted by (ii) sericite-pyrite-quartz (phyllic) alteration characterised by pyrite veining. Geologic relations, including similarities in alteration and structural style, geochronology, and camp-scale mineralogic and alteration zoning, indicate that intrusion, deformation, initiation of the porphyry hydrothermal system, and formation of the structurally hosted Au and base metal deposits are closely related spatially, temporally and probably genetically.
Q - INTRUSION-RELATED AU-(AG-CU) PYRRHOTITE VEINS Dani Alldrick, British Columbia Geological Survey
Intrusion-related gold-bearing pyrrhotite veins occur as a series of parallel, tabular to cymoid veins of massive iron sulphide and/or bull quartz. These moderate tonnage, high-grade veins are emplaced in en echelon fracture sets around the periphery of subvolcanic plutons. Examples of this newly-recognized deposit-type include some of the historic gold camps of British Columbia. These deposits are attractive exploration targets because of their high profit potential (high grades), ease of mining (strong, regular, structural control), relative ease of exploration (predictable restricted geologic setting; characteristic geophysical response) and high exploration potential (deposits occur in clusters or sets of veins and also have close genetic associations with other important mineral deposit types).
Veins may be composed of (i) massive fine-grained pyrrhotite and/or pyrite, or (ii) massive bull quartz with minor calcite and minor to accessory disseminations, knots and crystal aggregates of sulphides. These two dominant vein types may occur independently or together. The two mineralization styles may grade into each other along a vein, may form parallel to each other in a compound vein, or they may occur in adjacent but separate veins within an en echelon set.
The subvolcanic setting for these deposits is transitional between the setting for porphyry copper systems and the setting for epithermal systems. Mineralization is synvolcanic and syn-intrusive and formed along the thermally "brittle-ductile transition envelope" that surrounds subvolcanic intrusions. Late magma movement generated localized shearing which opened en echelon vein sets. Circulating hydrothermal fluid precipitated gold-rich iron sulphides and gangue.
All examples of this deposit type are emplaced in volcanic arc environments in oceanic or continental margin settings. These deposits have close associations with other ore deposits that are typical of arc environments. Consequently intrusion-related Au-(Ag-Cu) pyrrhotite veins should provide new exploration targets within established arc-related porphyry and epithermal camps. Conversely, discovery of these high-grade gold veins in frontier areas should spur exploration for additional deposits of this type, and for all the associated mineral deposit types of the volcanic arc environment.
Last Updated June 13, 2003

Gold, the noblest of metals, has been used by man for more than 5000 years. Its extreme softness or malleability, and resistance to tarnish (oxidation), led to its earliest uses in art and currency. Gold is the metal of choice for jewellery, and is often used in dentistry. Gold has also been used successfully in many modern technological applications. It is used as the electrical contacts of computer chips. Minute quantities of gold (less than 3 micrograms) are vaporized to mirror lens surfaces. The intrinsic value of gold offers an attractive alternative to stocks and bonds for many investors. It remains the principle medium for setting currency values and settling international debts among the nations of the world.Minor concentrations of gold occurs in most natural substances. In seawater, for example, there is approximately 0.012 parts per billion (ppb) of gold, and in fresh water it is slightly higher at 0.02 ppb. Its average concentration in the Earth's crust or lithosphere is approximately 5 ppb, and in certain sedimentary rocks it may achieve concentrations of up to 2100 ppb or 2.1 parts per million (ppm). At these concentrations 20 or 30 tons of rock must be processed to extract a single ounce of precious gold. As a result, gold can only be mined profitably where it is highly concentrated by natural chemical and physical processes.Gold occurs in many different geologic settings and its classification into deposit types is complicated. However, two basic types of occurrences or deposits are recognized, primary and secondary. Both rely on similar chemical and physical processes to produce economic concentrations of gold ore. Primary deposits form where gold precipitates during chemical reactions between hydrothermal (hot fluids) mineralizing solutions (metal-bearing)and rocks in the Earth's crust. Secondary deposits form later during the chemical and mechanical processes of weathering and erosion, and the physical reconcentration of gold-bearing sediment into placer deposits.Hydrothermal deposits can be classified as either epigenetic (deposits that form after the formation of the surrounding rocks and other events of mineralization) or syngenitic (deposits that form the same time as surrounding rocks). In epigenetic hydrothermal deposits gold may occur as the principle metal or as a secondary mineral associated with other metals, such as iron, copper, lead and zinc. In these epigenetic hydrothermal deposits. One variety of epigenetic deposit (epithermal gold deposits) form at temperatures below 350°C by the convective circulation of fluids to depths of approximately 2 kilometres, usually near hot igneous bodies or plutons in volcanically active regions. In this type of hydrothermal occurrence gold is generally at relatively low concentrations. Hot springs are modern examples of this type of mineralization process. Mesothermal gold deposits, which form at temperatures above 350°C, occur along large breaks or faults in continental crust. The origin of these is not certain, but they form at depths of 3 to 5 kilometres below the Earth's crust, and appear to be associated with the upward migration of fluids from the Earth's mantle.Gold is often extracted as a by-product during smelting from volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits (syngenetic hyrdothermal deposits) which are generated by the accumulation of metal-rich sediments near active volcanic centres on the seafloor. Gold is also found in porphyry copper deposits, high volume (up to 1000 million tons), low grade (0.7% Cu) deposits, formed by the circulation of fluids through the Earth's crust during the volcanic activity related to mountain building above active subduction zones. Secondary gold occurrences or placer deposits are formed by the deposition and reconcentration of gold-bearing sediments from primary gold occurrences. Placer deposits are generally classified according to their depositional environment. Marine placers occur offshore near coastlines; fluvial placers occur in river and stream valleys in the drainage basins which contain primary gold occurrences upstream. Some studies suggest that gold is not only mechanically transported in placers, but that it is also chemically transported. The unusual size and purity of nuggets in some placer deposits supports this theory for gold transportation.Why is it important to continue the search for gold and other metals? Aside from the obvious financial benefits associated with the discovery and development of mineral deposits to mining companies, there are many benefits to communities fortunate enough to be located near producing mines. Exploration and mine development are activities that create jobs. They require highly trained professionals, and skilled technical personnel that may be found in local communities. In addition to the manpower and labour requirements, mineral property and mine development activities often require additional materials and specialized technical services. These are often provided by geologic and mining engineering companies, who locate offices in local communities to participate in exploration and mine development contracts. The economic "spin-offs" to communities from these activities are often significant. Resource-based activities, including mining and exploration often serve as the base for local and regional economies.Where is the gold in Newfoundland? Despite an extensive exploration and mining history, gold exploration is a relatively new activity in Newfoundland and Labrador. While the gold-bearing base metal VMS deposits, such as at the former Buchans and Rambler mines, are well known, exploration over the last two decades has resulted in the recognition of numerous epigenetic gold deposits and prospects in the province. Important recent discoveries include the Hope Brook Mine, near Burgeo, and the Pine Cove and Nugget Pond deposits, near Baie Verte. There is also excellent potential for the discovery of marine placers in regions, such as the Baie Verte Peninsula, with an abundance of primary base metal and gold deposits. The potential for fluvial placers has not been investigated, but these may be discovered in some of the larger river basins.To summarize, recent exploration in Newfoundland and Labrador has resulted in the discovery of several new, significant gold prospects. While many of these are sub-economic, a few have been successfully developed as mines. The current economic recovery in Canada, and increases in the market price of gold have already resulted in increases in the level of prospecting and exploration in Newfoundland and Labrador, activities which may lead to the development of these gold deposits. Gold should be seriously considered as a mineral commodity of great importance to the development and economic diversification of Newfoundland and Labrador. This is the ancient alchemic symbol for gold. Innumerable experiments which were focused on transforming base metals and other materials to gold made significant contributions to the science of chemistry.Further Reading
Boyle, R. W.
1979: The geochemistry of gold and its deposits. Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin 280, 583 pages.
Brimhall, G.
1991: The genesis of ores. Scientific American, May, p. 84-91.
Rona, P. A.
1992: Deep-sea geysers of the Atlantic. National Geographic, vol. 184, no. 3, p. 105-109.
Roberts, R. G., and Sheahan, P. A.
1988: Ore deposit models. Geoscience Canada Reprint, Series 3, 194 pages.
Swinden, H. S.
1991: Regional geology and metallogeny of Central Newfoundland. In Swinden, H. S., Evans, D. W. T., and Kean, B. F. (editors) Metallogenic framework of base and precious metal deposits, Central and Western Newfoundland (Field Trip 1), Geological Survey of Canada Open File 2156, p. 7-19.
Tuach, J.
1990: List of gold occurrences and deposits in Newfoundland. Newfoundland Department of Mines and energy, Open File 1928, 72 pages.